However, it was the Dreyfus Affair that truly galvanized and held the attention of the entire French nation. In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian Jewish army officer accused of passing French military secrets to the Germans no deposit bonus ignition casino, was convicted of treason. His trial provided an outlet for virulent French xenophobia and anti-Semitism. Sentenced to exile to Devil's Island, Dreyfus maintained his innocence in the face of a French public captivated by scare tactics from the radical right. Eventually, the evidence crucial in cementing Dreyfuss' conviction was shown to have been forged and fabricated. When the illegal activities and forged evidence came to be known in the mass press, the entire country divided into two camps: the pro-Dreyfusards (usually political allied of the left and the Third Republic) who supported Dreyfus's innocence; and the anti-Dreyfusards (usually allies of traditionally conservative institutions such as the Church and the army, alongside rabid anti-Semites) who maintained his guilt in the name of French honor, national integrity, and racial purity. The entire country organized into leagues of small groups--intellectuals online roulette for money jpg, workers, soldiers, clerics, leftists, et cetera--all in the name of their position on "The Affair". Dreyfus was eventually exonerated in the press and in the court after conclusive evidence unearthed by the media determined that it was one of Dreyfus's colleagues on the General Staff who leaked the secrets and framed the Jewish scapegoat. From our former Paris Correspondent Today the French deputies and senators met separately and passed this resolution - the Chamber by 335 votes to three and the Senate by 225 votes to one. This is not a big proportion of votes online roulette real money market, particularly in the Chamber where since the expulsion of the Communists there have been 551 deputies. Many of the deputies were, of course, absent, but voting is usually done by proxy. In the Senate there are 314 seats. "The Constitution will be ratified by the Assembly, which it will have cheated." Thursday 11 July 1940 12.08 BST First published on Thursday 11 July 1940 12.08 BST Whether France will feel better after the operation may be doubted. Parliament has fallen so low that, according to the latest reports, the National Assembly at its meeting tomorrow will not even be allowed to discuss the terms of the new Constitution of 1875. The National Assembly will merely be asked to give the Government discretionary powers for deciding on the change. The draft solution to be submitted to the National Assembly (that is the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate sitting jointly) says: There are other interesting reports from France. According to one of them the 70-year-old President Lebrun will resign and pass on the Presidency to the 85-year-old but at least physically more vigorous, Pétain. The country will actually be governed by a triumvirate composed of M. Laval, M. Marquet, and General Weygrand. Other laws attainted the salaries of the clergy. In 1886 that of the bishops was reduced by one-third, and that of the archbishops by one-fourth. The salaries of canons were gradually extinguished altogether, as were also those of many curacies and assistants. The same method of reduction was brought to bear upon the allowances for seminaries; the towns were released from the obligation of repairing churches and religious establishments of charity. From 1876 to 1893, the budget for religious worship was reduced from 53 mobile casino jack,727,925 to 42,560,000 francs, or more than 11,000,000. So long as the Holy See had made no definite pronouncement concerning the policy which French Catholics ought to adopt, they were very much divided on the question, but unanimity instantly reigned on the day when Pope Pius X. formally indicated a definite policy. They who had desired that a plan of campaign different from that outlined by Rome should be pursued, respectfully submitted, and thus play slots with bonus games for free, by their obedience, gave proof of the sincerity and good faith of their former convictions. The Second Empire vegas slots online mustang money, especially during its last ten years, had proven itself no less hostile and treacherous to the Church than had many of its predecessors. This was evident most of all in the unworthy treatment of the Holy See during its trying conflict with the revolutionists of Italy. France had encouraged the spoliation of the Papal States by the forces of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel, and in 1870 it was forced to abandon Rome to the Italian Unionists. Before this last act had been consummated, however, a revolution broke out in France, Sept. 4, 1870, and overturned the imperial Government. A number of factors explain the failure of Pope Leo's policy of reconciling French Catholics with their government. Catholic militants in France, including some of the bishops, did their utmost to aggravate these difficulties, not so much on account of their religious zeal, as on account of their Royalist dislike for the Republic. Catholics of this type did not hesitate to insult their own bishops when the latter seemed to them too tolerant of the existing government. One of their favorite manoeuvres was to oppose the Concordat, which enslaved the church and paralyzed its energy. This argument was used, not only by Catholic laymen casino online canada jays, but also by priests and bishops. In the matter of higher education, the faculties of Catholic theology in the Sorbonne were suppressed (Budget of 1885), while the Protestant faculties have been maintained. In secondary education, religious instruction was made optional (December 21, 1881). In primary education a law of March 28, 1882, interdicted anyone from teaching the catechism in the local schools. In the prisons the religious services were notably reduced. In the hospitals of many cities the Sisters were driven out despite protestations of all kinds; moreover, no priest was henceforth to be placed upon the administrative commissions of the hospitals (April 5, 1879). The cure"s were also driven from the bureaus of charity (April 5, 1879). The exterior ceremonies of religion were forbidden in the streets, and religious monuments proscribed. In the cemeteries nonCatholics were to be admitted to burial side by side with Catholics (Nov. 15, 1881). In the churches slot buster free game, the mayor of the town was to have a key, couiu order the church bells to be rung, and exercise police supervision within the church limits, in contradiction to Article XV. of the Concordat. In the workshops and factories the law of Sunday rest was abrogated (1880). In private houses windsor canada casino map, no private chapels might be maintained. In the family, the law of divorce was felt (July 27, 1884). In May, 1893, this law was so transformed that a mere separation lasting three years could then, on the demand of one of the parties, be changed into absolute divorce. Civil contracts were elevated to a position of honor. The laws stood at the bedside of the dying to prevent the making of pious legacies; in the cemeteries civil funerals were permitted with attendant anti-religious manifestations, and the new practice of cremation. The challenge facing the Third Republic was to persuade the Catholics of France who were almost unanimously hostile to the Republic, to surrender their monarchical sympathies and dynastic attachments and reconcile themselves with the existing government, and, at the same time, to persuade the Republican authorities to cease regarding the Catholic Church, the French Catholics, and the Vatican, with a hostile and suspicious eye, and to call a halt, or, better still, to retrace their steps, in anti-Clerical legislation. The French people were put in opposition with the rulings of the French Third Republic early on. The French general Boulanger whom they loved was put in the position of Secretary of War following the Franco-Prussian War. Boulanger frightened members of the Parliament as he strongly encouraged militarization. These fears were confirmed in 1889 when a French officer was arrested crossing the German/French border and Boulanger’s immediate response was to declare war. The French Senate quickly removed him from office before he was able to make an assault on the Germans as any attempt would have resulted in a sure failure. This action by the Senate, however responsible it was, angered French citizens as Boulanger carried the highest approval rating among French politicians at the time. The Chamber even went so far as to attack the Concordat itself. In 1881, the separation of church and state ranked fifth among the deputies as far as importance. Two hundred and thirty three deputies shared their view on this topic, the majority of which were in favor of it. In 1885, the elections for the separation of church and state were held. In the first vote it failed, but when Planteau and Michelin proposed it again in the December of that year, it was approved in June of the following year. In this way, relations between the church and state were badly wounded, further complicating the problems of the French Third Republic. In the early 1880s the main direction of foreign policy was the establishment of a large colonial empire (see The Scramble for Africa ). Bismarck welcomed this strategy and hoped that interests outside Europe would take French attention away from Alsace-Lorraine. The French Empire expanded to include Algeria, Tunisia. Cochin China. Madagascar. Senegal and a number of other areas in North Africa. Much of the conquered lands were economically worthless, such as the large sand mass of the Sahara Desert. France competed with Italy, and to a greater extent the UK in Africa. There was constant friction between the UK and France over demarcation lines between their frontiers (see the Fashoda Incident ). The foreign Minister Théophile Delcassé was aware that France could not progress if she was in conflict with Germany in Europe and the UK in Africa and so recalled Captain Marchand's expeditionary force from Fashoda despite popular protests. This paved the way for the UK joining France in World War I. Nevertheless, the Communaurds did improve the conditions of the Parisian working class; the length of the working week, the position of women and improved education opportunities were all considered. Workers were allowed to take over abandoned workshops. The Stavisky Affair was a public scandal which weakened the moral authority of the French Third Republic in the eyes of the nation and caused huge public outcry. Serge Stavisky floated a loan of a million francs worth of bonds to finance a small pawnshop in Bayonne. Stavisky was a shady character and this was but one of many questionable business deals he had been involved in. However, with the aid of many powerful acquaintances he was able to stay out of trouble; one of his trials was postponed nineteen times. [8] When the press learnt of his latest deal and the public reacted with anger, Stavisky fled to the Alp where he committed suicide. Rumours abounded that he was killed by the police to protect the names of important politicians. Later, when an official in the public prosecutors office was found murdered, the public were convinced there was an organised cover up by the government. The Third Republic was created following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. In the aftermath of the war it was deemed necessary to hold elections to a national assembly which could authorize a formal, legitimate peace. Although the elections returned a largely monarchist Assembly, a Republican, Jules Grévy became its first President. Adolphe Thiers. elected by twenty six departements led the government. The Treaty of Frankfurt concluded the conflict; France ceded Alsace/Lorraine to Germany, and had to pay five million francs in war indemnities to the Germans, who partially occupied the country until the debt was paid. The Germans eventually left in September 1873. The emotional and psychological cost of the resolution may have hurt more than the financial. Migrants from Alsace Lorraine who refused to live under German rule kept the issue alive in the French national consciousness. Although it had seemed like the French had got their spy, staff papers continued to disappear and investigation by the new head of counter-intelligence, Colonel Picquart, discovered that the real spy was a French officer called Esterhazy. When Picquart pointed this out to his superiors they removed him from his position and sent him to Tunisia where it was hoped he would be killed in the fighting. Dreyfus's brother, Mathieu had independently came to the same decision and publicly denounced Esterhazy as a traitor. Esterhazy was tried on 11th January 1898 and after a farcical trial was declared innocent by the judges. With the accession of Leo XIII to the papacy in 1878 a period of détente occurred in Church-State relations. In 1884 he requested French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State. In 1892 he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in Republican politics. This attempt at improving the relationship failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair. Catholics were for the most party anti-dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix. This infuriated Republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Victor Hugo. an internationally renowned author and mastermind behind the epic Les Misérables (written in 1862), was a passionate atheistic Republican, who escaped the turmoil of the Paris Commune in an heroic manner (in a hot air balloon) Hugo was an elected member of the Assembly and Senate roulette hits strategy, and his writings and drawings (perhaps lesser known) helped mould the early years of the Third Republic. 7% of French territory had been destroyed in the war, including the rich industrial areas on North east France. Around 13,000 square miles of fertile agricultural land was devastated. Roads, railways and mines were ruined. The country was in debt to the tune of 175 billion francs. When the new Soviet regime refused to pay old loans given to the Tsar her financial position worsened. [4] By 1918 the State had become involved in many of the French industries. Although this involvement declined in the 1920s, it remained important. A number of mixed companies was formed in the electricity and mining sectors. The war also stimulated growth in the motor industry, chemicals and metals. Chautempts succeeded Blum and was in turn replaced by Daladier who formed the government of national defence. He saw the forty hour week as an obstacle to production. Accordingly, by a series of measures they lengthened the working week and cut back state spending. This caused strikes, but the General Strike of 30th November was a failure. Wealthy financers believed the left wing threat to France was over and returned; by 1939 the economy had stabilised. In addition to all of the above there was a host of smaller and more extreme groups. They were boosted by an array of anti-Republican, right wing papers like Le Matin and Candide. In 1934 the Stavisky Affair seemed to confirm to the Leagues that French democracy was irredeemably corrupt and that the time was right to overthrow it. France had become increasingly polarized between those who supported Dreyfus and those who opposed him. Dreyfusards included among their number republicans, radicals, Zola, Jaurès and Clemenceau. The latter wrote eight hundred newspaper articles on the subject. A League for the Defence of the Rights of Man was founded, which attracted Protestants, Freemasons, anti-clericals and Jews. Riots and demonstrations ensued. Action Française called for a revolt. The Leagues felt that the time was right for a fascist overthrow of the government. Ferocious rioting occurred on the 6th and 7th of February as the Leagues stormed the lower house of parliament. Édouard Daladier. who had succeeded Chautemps on 27th January, now resigned. The Republic was only saved by the formation of a National Union of the right, under the much respected former President, Gaston Doumergue. It lasted from 1934-1936. Two days later, Emile Zola published an open letter to the President in Clemenceau 's newspaper l'Aurore. The letter was entitled "J'accuse" and in separate paragraphs each beginning with 'I accuse', Zola named the generals who ordered the acquittal of Esterhazy. In september 1894 a list of French military documents called the bordereau was found by a French agent working in the German embassy. It became evident that a German spy had infiltrated the French officer corps. The head of the counter-intelligence agency, Major Henry, began a search for the culprit and came up with the name of captain Alfred Dreyfus. Dreyfus was a member of a wealthy Jewish family and thus was a figure of hate in the largely Catholic and Monarchial officer corps. One of his first actions in government was the retiring of royalist officers from the army. The improving living conditions and modernised training and weapons improved morale throughout the armed forces. When Otto Van Bismarck complained that he was damaging Franco-German relations this only improved his popularity in the country. He soon became a symbol of French military glory, a reflection of the rising nationalism of the time. Republicans feared that since religious orders controlled the schools anti-Republicanism was been indoctrinated to children. Determined to root this out, Republicans insisted they needed control of the schools, if economic and militaristic progress was to be achieved (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was because of their superior education system) The Commune passed the Law of the Hostages. which stated that any execution of a communaurd was to lead to the deaths of three anti-communaurd citizens. Raoul Rigault. in charge of security ensured this policy was carried through. Amongst his victims was the Archbishop of Paris. Ferdinand de Lesseps had achieved worldwide acclaim for the construction of the Suez Canal and when he decided to build a canal through the harsh terrain of Panama many small savers eagerly invested their money. However, the real power of the company was not in the hands of the famous engineer, but in a diverse band of financiers with disparate aims and objectives. When extra finance was needed they successfully bribed many deputies to sign the necessary parliamentary authorisation. Edouard Herriot became the new Prime Minister in the radical cabinet. The Socialists supported but did not join the new government. The Radicals forced President Millerand to resign and then initiated a ream of anti-clerical legislation that Herriot hoped would bring socialists and radicals together. There was a threat at the Vatican and an attempt to introduce the controversial 1905 Law of Separation in the very catholic Alsace region. This provoked large demonstrations and it seemed that Alsace would demand some level of autonomy. The Government retreated and dropped the proposal. With the end of the war in November 1918, many Frenchmen regarded it as one of the greatest moments of French history. National unity during the war against a common enemy had put the old squabbles of the early and mid third Republic to a distant memory. Revenge for the 1870 Franco Prussian war had been achieved and Alsace Lorraine was retaken. However, the losses sustained in the war were so great that it made their victory a Pyrrhic Victory. One and a quarter million French people died, around 16.6% of all mobilised and the highest number of casualties among the Allied powers. The French youth were hit particularly hard; with 30% of all aged 18-28 dying. In addition, around three million were wounded and one million were permanent. Shellshock and other psychological disorders as a result of the trench warfare haunted many more. [3] As a result, there was only half the normal number of 19-21 year olds in 1938. The shortage of manpower was reaching its peak just as the French were preparing to face the Nazi threat. Frances tradition of great scientists continued during the Third Republic. Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium salts and thus ushered in the atomic age. Pierre and Marie Curie discovered Radium. Louis Pasteur made significant breakthroughs in Microbiology. Meanwhile Thiers was building up his forces. He used propaganda to portray the communaurds as international conspirators against French values - he depicted them as agents of anarchy, rape and lootery. He recruited soldiers from the countryside who had no love for what they perceived as being their decadent capital, and were by and large traditional minded catholic men. After some fighting on the outskirts of the city online gaming canada medal count, MacMahon and Gallifet's forces entered Paris on 21st May. The following week has been remembered in Parisian history as the 'bloody week'. Large areas of Paris were destroyed by shellfire and a scorched earth policy was followed by some revolters. Around 25,000 Parisians died and a thousand soldiers. Almost 40,000 prisoners were taken of which 25,000 or so were given terms of forced labour. As a result of this conflict, the age old and prestigious office of Mayor of Paris [1] was abolished, and not reintroduced until 1977 when Jacques Chirac was elected mayor. Henry was determined to convict Dreyfus and forged the necessary evidence for his court-martial. He was found guilty, cashiered and deported to the penal colony of Devil's Island. Here the tropical heat and fevers slowly wasted him away. In 1913, Poincaré is elected president of the Republic. France enters the First World War in 1914 and loses 10% of its population by the end of the war in 1918. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles, however, places the responsibility of war on Germany and restores Alsace and Lorraine to the French. France experiences a severe depression in the 1930s, and the Popular Front made up of Socialists and Communists wins the elections of 1936, leading to many social and labor reforms.
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